World Drug Report 2022 (UNODC, 2022); https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/wdr-2022_booklet-3.html
Turna, J. et al. Overlapping patterns of recreational and medical cannabis use in a large community sample of cannabis users. Compr. Psychiatry 102, 152188 (2020).
Google Scholar
Rhee, T. G. & Rosenheck, R. A. Increasing use of cannabis for medical purposes among US residents, 2013–2020. Am. J. Prev. Med. 65, 528–533 (2023).
Google Scholar
Green, B., Kavanagh, D. & Young, R. Being stoned: a review of self-reported cannabis effects. Drug Alcohol Rev. 22, 453–460 (2003).
Google Scholar
Whiting, P. F. et al. Cannabinoids for medical use. JAMA. 313, 2456 (2015).
Google Scholar
Callaghan, R. C. et al. Associations between Canada’s cannabis legalization and emergency department presentations for transient cannabis-induced psychosis and schizophrenia conditions: Ontario and Alberta, 2015–2019. Can. J. Psychiatry 67, 616–625 (2022).
Google Scholar
Manthey, J., Freeman, T. P., Kilian, C., López-Pelayo, H. & Rehm, J. Public health monitoring of cannabis use in Europe: prevalence of use, cannabis potency, and treatment rates. Lancet Reg. Health Eur. 10, 100227 (2021).
Google Scholar
Pratt, M. et al. Benefits and harms of medical cannabis: a scoping review of systematic reviews. Syst. Rev. 8, 320 (2019).
Google Scholar
McGee, R., Williams, S., Poulton, R. & Moffitt, T. A longitudinal study of cannabis use and mental health from adolescence to early adulthood. Addiction 95, 491–503 (2000).
Google Scholar
Large, M., Sharma, S., Compton, M. T., Slade, T. & Nielssen, O. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68, 555 (2011).
Google Scholar
Marconi, A., Di Forti, M., Lewis, C. M., Murray, R. M. & Vassos, E. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 42, 1262–1269 (2016).
Google Scholar
Hasan, A. et al. Cannabis use and psychosis: a review of reviews. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 270, 403–412 (2020).
Google Scholar
Hindley, G. et al. Psychiatric symptoms caused by cannabis constituents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 7, 344–353 (2020).
Google Scholar
Sexton, M., Cuttler, C. & Mischley, L. K. A survey of cannabis acute effects and withdrawal symptoms: differential responses across user types and age. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 25, 326–335 (2019).
Google Scholar
Schoeler, T., Ferris, J. & Winstock, A. R. Rates and correlates of cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms in over 230,000 people who use cannabis. Transl. Psychiatry 12, 369 (2022).
Google Scholar
Winstock, A., Lynskey, M., Borschmann, R. & Waldron, J. Risk of emergency medical treatment following consumption of cannabis or synthetic cannabinoids in a large global sample. J. Psychopharmacol. 29, 698–703 (2015).
Google Scholar
Kaufmann, R. M. et al. Acute psychotropic effects of oral cannabis extract with a defined content of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in healthy volunteers. Pharmacopsychiatry 43, 24–32 (2010).
Google Scholar
Cameron, C., Watson, D. & Robinson, J. Use of a synthetic cannabinoid in a correctional population for posttraumatic stress disorder-related insomnia and nightmares, chronic pain, harm reduction, and other indications. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 34, 559–564 (2014).
Google Scholar
Aviram, J. et al. Medical cannabis treatment for chronic pain: outcomes and prediction of response. Eur. J. Pain 25, 359–374 (2021).
Google Scholar
Serpell, M. G., Notcutt, W. & Collin, C. Sativex long-term use: an open-label trial in patients with spasticity due to multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. 260, 285–295 (2013).
Google Scholar
Colizzi, M. et al. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases striatal glutamate levels in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Mol. Psychiatry. 25, 3231–3240 (2020).
Google Scholar
Bianconi, F. et al. Differences in cannabis-related experiences between patients with a first episode of psychosis and controls. Psychol. Med. 46, 995–1003 (2016).
Google Scholar
Valerie Curran, H. et al. Which biological and self-report measures of cannabis use predict cannabis dependency and acute psychotic-like effects? Psychol. Med. 49, 1574–1580 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kleinloog, D., Roozen, F., De Winter, W., Freijer, J. & Van Gerven, J. Profiling the subjective effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol using visual analogue scales. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 23, 245–256 (2014).
Google Scholar
Ganesh, S. et al. Psychosis-relevant effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a mega analysis of individual participant-data from human laboratory studies. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 23, 559–570 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Sundquist, J. & Sundquist, K. Prediction of onset of substance-induced psychotic disorder and its progression to schizophrenia in a Swedish national sample. Am. J. Psychiatry 176, 711–719 (2019).
Google Scholar
Arendt, M., Rosenberg, R., Foldager, L., Perto, G. & Munk-Jørgensen, P. Cannabis-induced psychosis and subsequent schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: follow-up study of 535 incident cases. Br. J. Psychiatry 187, 510–515 (2005).
Google Scholar
Kleinloog, D. et al. Does olanzapine inhibit the psychomimetic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol? J. Psychopharmacol. 26, 1307–1316 (2012).
Google Scholar
Liem-Moolenaar, M. et al. Central nervous system effects of haloperidol on THC in healthy male volunteers. J. Psychopharmacol. 24, 1697–1708 (2010).
Google Scholar
Patti, F. et al. Efficacy and safety of cannabinoid oromucosal spray for multiple sclerosis spasticity. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 87, 944–951 (2016).
Google Scholar
Thaler, A. et al. Single center experience with medical cannabis in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 61, 211–213 (2019).
Chandra, S. et al. New trends in cannabis potency in USA and Europe during the last decade (2008–2017). Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 269, 5–15 (2019).
Google Scholar
Englund, A. et al. Cannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairment. J. Psychopharmacol. 27, 19–27 (2013).
Google Scholar
Gibson, L. P. et al. Effects of cannabidiol in cannabis flower: implications for harm reduction. Addict. Biol. 27, e13092 (2022).
Google Scholar
Sainz-Cort, A. et al. The effects of cannabidiol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in social cognition: a naturalistic controlled study. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2022.0037 (2022).
Lawn, W. et al. The acute effects of cannabis with and without cannabidiol in adults and adolescents: a randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, crossover experiment. Addiction 118, 1282–1294 (2023).
Google Scholar
Englund, A. et al. Does cannabidiol make cannabis safer? A randomised, double-blind, cross-over trial of cannabis with four different CBD:THC ratios. Neuropsychopharmacology 48, 869–876 (2023).
Google Scholar
Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Witton, J. & Murray, R. M. Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. Br. J. Psychiatry 184, 110–117 (2004).
Di Forti, M. et al. The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): a multicentre case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry 6, 427–436 (2019).
Google Scholar
McCutcheon, R. A., Abi-Dargham, A. & Howes, O. D. Schizophrenia, dopamine and the striatum: from biology to symptoms. Trends Neurosci. 42, 205–220 (2019).
Google Scholar
Trubetskoy, V. et al. Mapping genomic loci implicates genes and synaptic biology in schizophrenia. Nature 604, 502–508 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zwicker, A. et al. Genetic counselling for the prevention of mental health consequences of cannabis use: a randomized controlled trial‐within‐cohort. Early Interv. Psychiatry 15, 1306–1314 (2021).
Google Scholar
Hindocha, C., Norberg, M. M. & Tomko, R. L. Solving the problem of cannabis quantification. Lancet Psychiatry 5, e8 (2018).
Google Scholar
Englund, A. et al. The effect of five day dosing with THCV on THC-induced cognitive, psychological and physiological effects in healthy male human volunteers: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover pilot trial. J. Psychopharmacol. 30, 140–151 (2016).
Google Scholar
Wall, M. B. et al. Individual and combined effects of cannabidiol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on striato-cortical connectivity in the human brain. J. Psychopharmacol. 36, 732–744 (2022).
Google Scholar
Hammerton, G. & Munafò, M. R. Causal inference with observational data: the need for triangulation of evidence. Psychol. Med. 51, 563–578 (2021).
Google Scholar
Sami, M., Notley, C., Kouimtsidis, C., Lynskey, M. & Bhattacharyya, S. Psychotic-like experiences with cannabis use predict cannabis cessation and desire to quit: a cannabis discontinuation hypothesis. Psychol. Med. 49, 103–112 (2019).
Google Scholar
Morgan, C. J. A., Schafer, G., Freeman, T. P. & Curran, H. V. Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: naturalistic study. Br. J. Psychiatry 197, 285–290 (2010).
Schoeler, T. et al. Association between continued cannabis use and risk of relapse in first-episode psychosis: a quasi-experimental investigation within an observational study. JAMA Psychiatry 73, 1173–1179 (2016).
Google Scholar
Sznitman, S., Baruch, Y. Ben, Greene, T. & Gelkopf, M. The association between physical pain and cannabis use in daily life: an experience sampling method. Drug Alcohol Depend. 191, 294–299 (2018).
Google Scholar
Henquet, C. et al. Psychosis reactivity to cannabis use in daily life: an experience sampling study. Br. J. Psychiatry 196, 447–453 (2010).
Google Scholar
Pingault, J.-B. et al. Using genetic data to strengthen causal inference in observational research. Nat. Rev. Genet. 19, 566–580 (2018).
Google Scholar
Hill, K. P. Medical cannabis. JAMA 323, 580 (2020).
Google Scholar
Esterberg, M. L., Trotman, H. D., Holtzman, C., Compton, M. T. & Walker, E. F. The impact of a family history of psychosis on age-at-onset and positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 120, 121–130 (2010).
Google Scholar
Di Forti, M. et al. Proportion of patients in south London with first-episode psychosis attributable to use of high potency cannabis: a case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry 2, 233–238 (2015).
Google Scholar
Peters, B. D. et al. Subjective effects of cannabis before the first psychotic episode. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 43, 1155–1162 (2009).
Google Scholar
Karcher, N. R. et al. Persistent and distressing psychotic-like experiences using adolescent brain cognitive development study data. Mol. Psychiatry 27, 1490–1501 (2022).
Google Scholar
LaFrance, E. M., Stueber, A., Glodosky, N. C., Mauzay, D. & Cuttler, C. Overbaked: assessing and predicting acute adverse reactions to cannabis. J. Cannabis Res. 2, 3 (2020).
Google Scholar
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J. & Altman, D. G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Brit. Med. J. 339, b2535 (2009).
Google Scholar
Westgate, M. J. revtools: an R package to support article screening for evidence synthesis. Res. Synth. Methods. 10, 606–614 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kelleher, I., Harley, M., Murtagh, A. & Cannon, M. Are screening instruments valid for psychotic-like experiences? A validation study of screening questions for psychotic-like experiences using in-depth clinical interview. Schizophr. Bull. 37, 362–369 (2011).
Google Scholar
Morgan, C. J. A., Freeman, T. P., Powell, J. & Curran, H. V. AKT1 genotype moderates the acute psychotomimetic effects of naturalistically smoked cannabis in young cannabis smokers. Transl. Psychiatry 6, e738 (2016).
Google Scholar
Ivimey‐Cook, E. R., Noble, D. W. A., Nakagawa, S., Lajeunesse, M. J. & Pick, J. L. Advice for improving the reproducibility of data extraction in meta‐analysis. Res. Synth. Methods. 14, 911–915 (2023).
Google Scholar
Signorell, A. et al. DescTools: Tools for Descriptive Statistics R Package version 0.99 https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/DescTools/index.html (2019).
Viechtbauer, W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J. Stat. Softw. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03 (2010).
Peters, J. L. Comparison of two methods to detect publication bias in meta-analysis. JAMA 295, 676–680 (2006).
Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T. & Rothstein, H. R. in Introduction to Meta-Analysis 225–238 (John Wiley & Sons, 2009); https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470743386.ch24
Mason, O. et al. Acute cannabis use causes increased psychotomimetic experiences in individuals prone to psychosis. Psychol. Med. 39, 951–956 (2009).
Google Scholar
D’Souza, D. C. et al. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 594–608 (2005).
Google Scholar
Solowij, N. et al. A randomised controlled trial of vaporised Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol alone and in combination in frequent and infrequent cannabis users: acute intoxication effects. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 269, 17–35 (2019).
Google Scholar
Vadhan, N. P., Corcoran, C. M., Bedi, G., Keilp, J. G. & Haney, M. Acute effects of smoked marijuana in marijuana smokers at clinical high-risk for psychosis: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res. 257, 372–374 (2017).
Google Scholar
Radhakrishnan, R. et al. GABA deficits enhance the psychotomimetic effects of Δ9-THC. Neuropsychopharmacology 40, 2047–2056 (2015).
Google Scholar
Higgins, J. P. T. & Thompson, S. G. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat. Med. 21, 1539–1558 (2002).
Google Scholar
Tang, J.-L. & Liu, J. L. Misleading funnel plot for detection of bias in meta-analysis. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 53, 477–484 (2000).
Google Scholar
Duval, S. & Tweedie, R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics 56, 455–463 (2000).
Google Scholar
Viechtbauer, W. & Cheung, M. W.-L. Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Res. Synth. Methods 1, 112–125 (2010).
Google Scholar
Harrer, M., Cuijpers, P., Furukawa, T. & Ebert, D. D. dmetar: Companion R Package for the Guide ’Doing Meta-Analysis in R’ R package version 00.9000 http://dmetar.protectlab.org/ (2019).
Thomas, H. A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 42, 201–207 (1996).
Google Scholar
Olsson, F. et al. An observational study of safety and clinical outcome measures across patient groups in the United Kingdom Medical Cannabis Registry. Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol. 16, 257–266 (2023).
Google Scholar
Arendt, M. et al. Testing the self-medication hypothesis of depression and aggression in cannabis-dependent subjects. Psychol. Med. 37, 935–945 (2007).
Google Scholar
Bonn-Miller, M. O. et al. The short-term impact of 3 smoked cannabis preparations versus placebo on PTSD symptoms: a randomized cross-over clinical trial. PLoS ONE 16, e0246990 (2021).
Stokes, P. R. A., Mehta, M. A., Curran, H. V., Breen, G. & Grasby Paul, R. A. Can recreational doses of THC produce significant dopamine release in the human striatum? Neuroimage 48, 186–190 (2009).
Zuurman, L. et al. Effect of intrapulmonary tetrahydrocannabinol administration in humans. J. Psychopharmacol. 22, 707–716 (2008).
Google Scholar
Safakish, R. et al. Medical cannabis for the management of pain and quality of life in chronic pain patients: a prospective observational study. Pain Med. 21, 3073–3086 (2020).
Google Scholar
Favrat, B. et al. Two cases of ‘cannabis acute psychosis’ following the administration of oral cannabis. BMC Psychiatry 5, 17 (2005).
Google Scholar
Balash, Y. et al. Medical cannabis in Parkinson disease: real-life patients’ experience. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 40, 268–272 (2017).
Google Scholar
Habib, G. & Levinger, U. Characteristics of medical cannabis usage among patients with fibromyalgia. Harefuah 159, 343–348 (2020).
Google Scholar
Beaulieu, P. Effects of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, on postoperative pain. Can J. Anesth. 53, 769–775 (2006).
Google Scholar
Rup, J., Freeman, T. P., Perlman, C. & Hammond, D. Cannabis and mental health: adverse outcomes and self-reported impact of cannabis use by mental health status. Subst. Use Misuse 57, 719–729 (2022).
Google Scholar
Be the first to comment